IGNITION SYSTEM

An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. It is best known in the field of internal combustion engines but also has other applications, e.g. in oil-fired and gas-fired boilers. The earliest internal combustion engines used a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition but these were quickly replaced by systems using an electric spark.

HISTORY

Magneto systems
The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto. The engine spins a magnet inside a coil, and also operates a contact breaker, interrupting the current and causing the voltage to be increased sufficiently to jump a small gap. The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output. Magnetos are not used in modern cars, but because they generate their own electricity they are often found on piston aircraft engines and small engines such as those found in mopeds, lawnmowers, snowblowers, chainsaws, etc. where there is no battery

Magnetos were used on the small engine's ancestor, the stationary "hit or miss" engine which was used in the early twentieth century, on older gasoline or distillate farm tractors before battery starting and lighting became common, and on aircraft piston engines. Magnetos were used in these engines because their simplicity and self-contained nature was more reliable, and because magnetos weighed less than having a battery and generator or alternator.

Aircraft engines usually have multiple magnetos to provide redundancy in the event of a failure. Some older automobiles had both a magneto system and a battery actuated system (see below) running simultaneously to ensure proper ignition under all conditions with the limited performance each system provided at the time.

Switchable systems
The output of a magneto depends on the speed of the engine, and therefore starting can be problematic. Some magnetos include an impulse system, which spins the magnet quickly at the proper moment, making easier starting at slow cranking speeds. Some engines, such as aircraft but also the Ford Model T, used a system which relied on non rechargeable dry cells, (like large flashlight batteries, not what are usually thought of as automobile batteries today) to start the engine or for running at low speed; then the operator would manually switch the ignition over to magneto operation for high speed operation.

In order to provide high voltage for the spark from the low voltage batteries, however, a "tickler" was used, which was essentially a larger version of the once widespread electric buzzer. With this apparatus, the direct current passes through an electromagnetic coil which pulls open a pair of contact points, interrupting the current; the magnetic field collapses, the spring-loaded points close again, the circuit is reestablished, and the cycle repeats rapidly. The rapidly collapsing magnetic field, however, induces a high voltage across the coil which can only relieve itself by arcing across the contact points; while in the case of the buzzer this is a problem as it causes the points to oxidize and/or weld together, in the case of the ignition system this becomes the source of the high voltage to operate the spark plugs.

In this mode of operation, the coil would "buzz" continuously, producing a constant train of sparks. The entire apparatus was known as the Model T spark coil (in contrast to the modern ignition coil which is only the actual coil component of the system), and long after the demise of the Model T as transportation they remained a popular self-contained source of high voltage for electrical home experimenters, appearing in articles in magazines such as Popular Mechanics and projects for school science fairs as late as the early 1960s. In the UK these devices were commonly known as trembler coils and were popular in cars pre-1910, and also in commercial vehicles with large engines until around 1925 to ease starting.

The Model T (built into the flywheel) differed from modern implementations by not providing high voltage directly at the output; the maximum voltage produced was about 30 volts, and therefore also had to be run through the spark coil to provide high enough voltage for ignition, as described above, although the coil would not "buzz" continuously in this case, only going through one cycle per spark. In either case, the high voltage was switched to the appropriate spark plug by the timer mounted on the front of the engine, the equivalent of the modern distributor. The timing of the spark was adjustable by rotating this mechanism through a lever mounted on the steering column.

Battery-operated ignition
With the universal adaptation of electrical starting for automobiles, and the concomitant availability of a large battery to provide a constant source of electricity, magneto systems were abandoned for systems which interrupted current at battery voltage, used an ignition coil (a type of autotransformer) to step the voltage up to the needs of the ignition, and a distributor to route the ensuing pulse to the correct spark plug at the correct time.

The first reliable battery operated ignition was developed by the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co. (Delco) and introduced in the 1910 Cadillac. This ignition was developed by Charles Kettering and was a wonder in its day. It consisted of a single coil, points (the switch), a capacitor and a distributor set up to allocate the spark from the ignition coil timed to the correct cylinder. The coil was basically an autotransformer set up to step up the low (6 or 12V) voltage supply to the high ignition voltage required to jump a spark plug gap.

The points allow the coil to charge magnetically and then, when they are opened by a cam arrangement, the magnetic field collapses and a large (20KV or greater) voltage is produced. The capacitor is used to absorb the back EMF from the magnetic field in the coil to minimize point contact burning and maximize point life. The Kettering system became the primary ignition system for many years in the automotive industry due to its lower cost, higher reliability and relative simplicity

Modern ignition systems

Mechanically timed ignition

Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The heart of the system is the distributor. The distributor contains a rotating cam running off the engine's drive, a set of breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External to the distributor is the ignition coil, the spark plugs, and wires linking the spark plugs and ignition coil to the distributor.

The system is powered by a lead-acid battery, which is charged by the car's electrical system using a dynamo or alternator. The engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt the current to an induction coil (known as the ignition coil).

The ignition coil consists of two transformer windings sharing a common magnetic core -- the primary and secondary windings. An alternating current in the primary induces alternating magnetic field in the coil's core. Because the ignition coil's secondary has far more windings than the primary, the coil is a step-up transformer which induces a much higher voltage across the secondary windings. For an ignition coil, one end of windings of both the primary and secondary are connected together. This common point is connected to the battery (usually through a current-limiting resistor). The other end of the primary is connected to the points within the distributor. The other end of the secondary is connected, via the distributor cap and rotor, to the spark plugs.

The ignition firing sequence begins with the points (or contact breaker) closed. A steady charge flows from the battery, through the current-limiting resistor, through the coil primary, across the closed breaker points and finally back to the battery. This steady current produces a magnetic field within the coil's core. This magnetic field forms the energy reservoir that will be used to drive the ignition spark.

As the engine turns, so does the cam inside the distributor. The points ride on the cam so that as the engine turns and reaches the top of the engine's compression cycle, a high point in the cam causes the breaker points to open. This breaks the primary winding's circuit and abruptly stops the current through the breaker points. Without the steady current through the points, the magnetic field generated in the coil immediately begins to quickly collapse. This rapid decay of the magnetic field induces a high voltage in the coil's secondary windings.

At the same time, current exits the coil's primary winding and begins to charge up the capacitor ("condenser") that lies across the now-open breaker points. This capacitor and the coil’s primary windings form an oscillating LC circuit. This LC circuit produces a damped, oscillating current which bounces energy between the capacitor’s electric field and the ignition coil’s magnetic field. The oscillating current in the coil’s primary, which produces an oscillating magnetic field in the coil, extends the high voltage pulse at the output of the secondary windings. This high voltage thus continues beyond the time of the initial field collapse pulse. The oscillation continues until the circuit’s energy is consumed.

The ignition coil's secondary windings are connected to the distributor cap. A turning rotor, located on top of the breaker cam within the distributor cap, sequentially connects the coil's secondary windings to one of the several wires leading to each cylinder's spark plug. The extremely high voltage from the coil's secondary -– often higher than 1000 volts -- causes a spark to form across the gap of the spark plug. This, in turn, ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture within the engine. It is the creation of this spark which consumes the energy that was originally stored in the ignition coil’s magnetic field.

High performance engines with eight or more cylinders that operate at high r.p.m. as in motor racing that demand higher rate and energy of sparks than the simple ignition circuit can provide may use either of these adaptations:

Two complete sets of coils, breakers and condensers can be provided - one set for each half of the engine, which is typically arranged in V-8 or V-12 configuration. Although the two ignition system halves are electrically independent, they typically share a single distributor which in this case contains two breakers driven by the rotating cam, and a rotor with two isolated conducting planes for the two high voltage inputs.
A single breaker driven by a cam and a return spring is limited in spark rate by the onset of contact bounce or float at high rpm. This limit can be overcome by substituting for the breaker a pair of breakers that are connected electrically in series but spaced on opposite sides of the cam so they are driven out of phase. Each breaker then switches at half the rate of a single breaker and the "dwell" time for current buildup in the coil is maximised since it is shared between the breakers.
The Lamborghini V-12 engine has both these adaptations and therefore uses two ignition coils and a single distributor that contains 4 contact breakers.

Except that more separate elements are involved, a distributor-based system is not greatly different from a magneto system. There are also advantages to this arrangement. For example, the position of the contact breaker points relative to the engine angle can be changed a small amount dynamically, allowing the ignition timing to be automatically advanced with increasing revolutions per minute (RPM) and/or increased manifold vacuum, giving better efficiency and performance.

However it is necessary to check periodically the maximum opening gap of the breaker(s), using a feeler gauge, since this mechanical adjustment affects the "dwell" time during which the coil charges, and breakers should be re-dressed or replaced when they have become pitted by electric arcing. This system was used almost universally until the late 1970s, when electronic ignition systems started to appear.

Electronic ignition
The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the low voltage high current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to mechanical wear where they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at the contact surfaces from the constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is subject to mechanical variations.

In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency. A mechanical contact breaker system cannot control an average ignition current of more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life, and this may limit the power of the spark and ultimate engine speed.

Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In the initial systems, points were still used but they only handled a low current which was used to control the high primary current through a solid state switching system. Soon, however, even these contact breaker points were replaced by an angular sensor of some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more commonly using a Hall effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet mounted on a suitable shaft. The sensor output is shaped and processed by suitable circuitry, then used to trigger a switching device such as a thyristor, which switches a large current through the coil.

The rest of the system (distributor and spark plugs) remains as for the mechanical system. The lack of moving parts compared with the mechanical system leads to greater reliability and longer service intervals. For older cars, it is usually possible to retrofit an EI system in place of the mechanical one. In some cases, a modern distributor will fit into the older engine with no other modifications.

Other innovations are currently available on various cars. In some models, rather than one central coil, there are individual coils on each spark plug, sometimes known as COP or coil on plug. This allows the coil a longer time to accumulate a charge between sparks, and therefore a higher energy spark. A variation on this has each coil handle two plugs, on cylinders which are 360 degrees out of phase (and therefore reach TDC at the same time); in the four-cycle engine this means that one plug will be sparking during the end of the exhaust stroke while the other fires at the usual time, a so-called "wasted spark" arrangement which has no drawbacks apart from faster spark plug erosion; the paired cylinders are 1/4 and 2/3. Other systems do away with the distributor as a timing apparatus and use a magnetic crank angle sensor mounted on the crankshaft to trigger the ignition at the proper time.

During the 1980s, EI systems were developed alongside other improvements such as fuel injection systems. After a while it became logical to combine the functions of fuel control and ignition into one electronic system known as an engine control unit.

Digital Electronic Ignitions
At the turn of the century digital electronic ignition modules became available for small engines on such applications as chainsaws, string-trimmers, leaf blowers, and lawn mowers. This was made possible by low cost, high speed, and small footprint microcontrollers. Digital electronic ignition modules can be designed as either capacitive discharge (CDI) or inductive discharge ignitions (IDI). Capacitive discharge digital ignitions store charged energy for the spark in a capacitor within the module that can be released to the spark plug at virtually any time throughout the engine cycle via a control signal from the microprocessor. This allows for greater timing flexibility, and engine performance; especially when designed hand-in-hand with the engine carburetor.

Engine management
In an Engine Management System (EMS), electronics control fuel delivery, ignition timing and firing order. Primary sensors on the system are engine angle (crank or Top Dead Center (TDC) position), airflow into the engine and throttle demand position. The circuitry determines which cylinder needs fuel and how much, opens the requisite injector to deliver it, then causes a spark at the right moment to burn it.Early EMS systems used analogue computer circuit designs to accomplish this, but as embedded systems became fast enough to keep up with the changing inputs at high revolutions, digital systems started to appear.

Some designs using EMS retain the original coil, distributor and spark plugs found on cars throughout history. Other systems dispense with the distributor and coil and use special spark plugs which each contain their own coil (Direct Ignition). This means high voltages are not routed all over the engine, but are instead created at the point at which they are needed. Such designs offer potentially much greater reliability than conventional arrangements.

Modern EMS systems usually monitor other engine parameters such as temperature and the amount of uncombined oxygen in the exhaust. This allows them to control the engine to minimise unburnt or partially burnt fuel and other noxious gases, leading to much cleaner and more efficient engines.

AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION

Automatic transmission

An automatic transmission (commonly abbreviated as "AT") is an automobile gearbox that can change gear ratios automatically as the vehicle moves, freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually. Similar but larger devices are also used for railroad locomotives.

Most automatic transmissions have a set selection of possible gear ranges, often with a parking pawl feature that will lock the output shaft of the transmission. Continuously variable transmissions (CVTs) can change the ratios over a range rather than between set gear ratios. CVTs have been used for decades in two-wheeled scooters but have seen limited use in a few automobile models. Recently, however, CVT technology has gained greater acceptance among manufacturers and customers.

Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as some forklift trucks and lawn mowers, only use a torque converter to provide a variable gearing of the engine to the wheels.

Automatic transmission modes

Conventionally, in order to select the mode, the driver would have to move a gear shift lever located on the steering column or on the floor next to him/her. In order to select gears/modes the driver must push a button in (called the shift lock button) or pull the handle (only on column mounted shifters) out. Some vehicles (like the Aston Martin DB9) position selector buttons for each mode on the cockpit instead, freeing up space on the central console. Vehicles conforming to US Government standards must have the modes ordered P-R-N-D-L (left to right, top to bottom, or clockwise). Prior to this, quadrant-selected automatic transmissions often utilized a P-N-D-L-R layout, or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of deaths and injuries owing to unintentional gear mis-selection, as well the danger of having a selector (when worn) jump into Reverse from Low gear during engine braking maneuvers.

Automatic Transmissions have various modes depending on the model and make of the transmission. Some of the common modes are:

Park (P) – This selection mechanically locks the transmission, restricting the car from moving in any direction. A parking pawl prevents the transmission, and therefore the vehicle, from moving (although the vehicle's non-drive wheels may still spin freely). For this reason, it is recommended to use the hand brake (or parking brake) because this actually locks the (in most cases, rear) wheels and prevents them from moving. This also increases the life of the transmission and the park pin mechanism, because when parking on an incline with the transmission in park without the parking brake engaged will cause undue stress on the parking pin. An efficiently-adjusted hand brake should also prevent the car from moving if a worn selector accidentally drops into Reverse gear during early morning fast-idle engine warmups.

A car should be allowed to come to a complete stop before setting the transmission into park to prevent damage. Usually, PARK is one of only two selections in which the car's engine can be started. In some cars (notably those sold in the US), the driver must have the footbrake applied before the transmission can be taken out of park. The Park position is omitted on buses/coaches with automatic transmission, which must be placed in neutral with the parking brakes set.

Reverse (R) – This puts the car into the reverse gear, giving the ability for the car to drive backwards. In order for the driver to select reverse they must come to a complete stop, push the shift lock button in (or pull the shift lever forward in the case of a column shifter) and select reverse. Not coming to a complete stop can cause severe damage to the transmission. Many modern automatic gearboxes have a safety mechanism in place, which does to some extent prevent (but doesn't completely avoid) inadvertently putting the car in reverse when the vehicle is moving. This mechanism usually consists of a solenoid- controlled physical barrier on either side of the Reverse position, which is electronically engaged by a switch on the brake pedal. Therefore, the brake pedal needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of reverse. Some electronic transmissions prevent or delay engagement of reverse gear altogether while the car is moving.

Neutral/No gear (N)– This disconnects the transmission from the wheels so the car can move freely under its own weight. This is the only other selection in which the car can be started.

Drive (D)– This allows the car to move forward and accelerate through its range of gears. The number of gears a transmission has depends on the model, but they can commonly range from 3, 4 (the most common), 5, 6 (found in VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox), 7 (found in Mercedes 7G gearbox, BMW M5 and VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox) and 8 in the newer models of Lexus cars. Some cars when put into D will automatically lock the doors or turn on the Daytime Running Lamps.

OverDrive ([D], OD, or a boxed D) - This mode is used in some transmissions, to allow early Computer Controlled Transmissions to engage the Automatic Overdrive. In these transmissions, Drive (D) locks the Automatic Overdrive off, but is identical otherwise. OD (Overdrive) in these cars is engaged under steady speeds or low acceleration at approximately 35-45 mph (approx. 72 km/h). Under hard acceleration or below 35-45 mph, the transmission will automatically downshift. Vehicles with this option should be driven in this mode unless circumstances require a lower gear.

Second (2 or S) – This mode limits the transmission to the first two gears, or more commonly locks the transmission in second gear. This can be used to drive in adverse conditions such as snow and ice, as well as climbing or going down hills in the winter time. Some vehicles will automatically upshift out of 2nd gear in this mode if a certain rpm range is reached, to prevent engine damage.

First (1 or L) – This mode locks the transmission in first gear only. It will not accelerate through any gear range. This, like second, can be used during the winter season, or towing.

As well as the above modes there are also other modes, dependent on the manufacturer and model. Some examples include;

D5 – In Hondas and Acuras equipped with 5-speed automatic transmissions, this mode is used commonly for highway use (as stated in the manual), and uses all 5 forward gears.
D4 – This mode is also found in Honda and Acura 4 or 5-speed automatics and only uses the first 4 gears. According to the manual, it is used for stop & go traffic, such as city driving.
D3 – This mode is found in Honda and Acura 4-speed automatics and only uses the first 3 gears. According to the manual, it is used for stop & go traffic, such as city driving. This mode is also found in Honda and Acura 5-speed automatics.
+ − and M – This is the manual selection of gears for automatics, such as Porsche's Tiptronic. This feature can also be found in Chrysler and General Motors products such as the Dodge Magnum and Pontiac G6. The driver can shift up and down at will, by toggling the shift lever (console mounted) like a semi-automatic transmission. This mode may be engaged either through a selector/position or by actually changing gear (e.g. tipping the gear-down paddles mounted near the driver's fingers on the steering wheel).

CAR BODY STYLE

Car body style


Cars can come in a large variety of different body styles. Some are still in production, while others are of historical interest only. These styles are largely (though not completely) independent of a car's classification in terms of price, size and intended broad market; the same car model might be available in multiple body styles (or model ranges). For some of the following terms, especially relating to four-wheel drive / SUV models and minivan / MPV models, the distinction between body style and classification is particularly narrow.

Please note that while each body style has a historical and technical definition, in common usage such definitions are often blurred. Over time, the common usage of each term evolves. For example, people often call 4-passenger sport coupés a "sports car", while purists will insist that a sports car by definition is limited to two-place vehicles

Styles in current use

4x4 or 4WD ("four-by-four" or "four-wheel drive")

A four-wheeled vehicle with a drivetrain that allows all four wheels to receive power from the engine simultaneously. The terms are usually (but not exclusively) used in Europe to describe what is referred to in North America as a sport utility vehicle or SUV.

Cabrio coach or Semi-convertible
A form of car roof, where a retractable textile cover amounts to a large sunroof. Fundamental to various older designs such as the Citroën 2CV; sometimes an option on modern cars.

Cabriolet
A term for a convertible
A BMW M3 convertible
A body style with a flexible textile folding roof or rigid retracting roof — of highly variable design detail — to allow driving in open or enclosed modes.

Coupé
A 2-door, 2- or 4-seat car with a fixed roof. Its doors are often longer than those of an equivalent sedan and the rear passenger area smaller; the roof may also be low. In cases where the rear seats are very small and not intended for regular use it is called a 2+2 (pronounced "two plus two"). Originally, a coupé was required to have only one side window per side, but this consideration has not been used for many years.

Coupe Utility (ute)
the Coupe Utility is a passenger-car derived light truck with coupé passenger cabin lines and an integral cargo bed.

Crossover (or CUV)
A loose marketing term to describe a vehicle that blends features of a SUV with features of a car — especially forgoing the body on frame construction of the SUV in favor of the car's unibody or monocoque construction.
Estate car (or just "estate")
The British term for what North Americans call a station wagon.

Fastback
A design where the roof slopes at a smooth angle to the tail of the car, but the rear window does not open as a separate "door".

Hardtop
A style of car roof. Originally referred to a removable solid roof on a convertible; later, also a fixed-roof car whose doors have no fixed window frames, which is designed to resemble such a convertible.

Hatchback
Identified by a rear door including the back window that opens vertically to access a storage area not separated from the rest of the passenger compartment. May be 2 or 4 door and 2 or 4 seat, but generally in Britain count the tailgate making it a 3-door and 5-door.

Hearse
A converted luxury car usually used to transport the dead. Often longer and heavier than the vehicle on which they are usually based.
Leisure activity vehicle
A small van, generally related to a supermini, with a second or even a third seat row, and a large, tall boot.

Liftback
A style of coupé with a hatchback; this name is generally used when the opening area is very sloped (and is thus lifted up to open).

A Lincoln Town Car limousine
By definition, a chauffeur-driven car with a (normally glass-windowed) division between the front seats and the rear. In German, the term simply means a sedan.

Minibus
Designed to carry fewer people than a full-size bus, generally up to 16 people in multiple rows of seats. Passenger access in normally via a sliding door on one side of the vehicle. One example of a van with a minibus version available is the Ford Transit.

Minivan
North American term for a boxy wagon-type of car usually containing three or four rows of seats, with a capacity of six or more passengers. Often with extra luggage space also. As opposed to the larger van, the minivan was developed primarily as a passenger vehicle, though is more van-like than a station wagon. In Britain, these are generally referred to as people carriers.

Muscle car
Popular sports cars during the late 1960s and the 1970s. Were also used as race cars.

MPV
Multi-purpose vehicle, a large car or small bus designed to be used on and off-road and easily convertible to facilitate loading of goods from facilitating carrying people.

Notchback
A cross between the smooth fastback and angled sedan look. It is a sedan type with a separate trunk compartment.
People carrier
European name to describe what is usually referred to in North America as an Minivan.

Pickup truck a.k.a pick-up
Small or medium sized truck. Not based on a passenger car, but of similar size. This light commercial vehicle features a separate cabin and rear load area (separate cargo bed).

Pillarless
Usually a prefix to coupé, fastback, or hardtop; completely open at the sides when the windows are down, without a central pillar, e.g. the Sunbeam Rapier fastback coupé.

Ragtop
Originally an open car like a roadster, but with a soft top (cloth top) that can be raised or lowered. Unlike a convertible, it had no roll-up side windows. Now often used as slang for a convertible.
Retractable Hardtop
aka Coupé convertible or Coupé Cabriolet. A type of convertible forgoing a foldable textile roof in favor of a multi-segment rigid roof retracts into the lower bodywork.

Roadster
Originally a two-seat open car with minimal weather protection — without top or side glass — though possibly with optional hard or soft top and side curtains (i.e., without roll-up glass windows). In modern usage, the term means simply a two-seat sports car convertible, a variation of spyder.

Saloon
The British term for a sedan.

Sedan
A car seating four or more with a fixed roof that is full-height up to the rear window. Sedans can have 2 or 4 doors. This is the most common body style. In the U.S., this term has been used to denote a car with fixed window frames, as opposed to the hardtop style where the sash, if any, winds down with the glass.
Sedan delivery
North American term (mainly U.S. and Canada). Similar to a wagon, with no side windows, similar to a panel truck, only two side doors, and one or two rear doors (not a liftgate, like a wagon). Often shortened to delivery. Example: Chevrolet HHR

A 2007 Chevrolet Suburban, one model of SUVSport utility vehicle (SUV)
Derivative of off-road or four-wheel drive vehicles but with car-like levels of interior comfort and drivability. Also sometimes called a 'soft-roader' or 'Toorak tractor'[1]. This vehicle type can employ body styles and criteria of many of the above. However, sport utility wagons are the most common type.

Spyder (or Spider)
Similar to a roadster but originally with even less weather protection. The term originated from a small two-seat horse-cart with a folding sunshade made of four bows. With its black cloth top and exposed sides for air circulation, the top resembled a spider. Nowadays it simply means a convertible sports car.
Shooting brake
A two-door estate car; generally for vintage or extremely expensive vehicles. They were vehicles for the well-off shooter and hunter, giving space to carry shotguns and other equipment. Usually made to order by coachbuilders. The term is occasionally revived.

Station wagon
A car with a full-height body all the way to the rear; the load-carrying space created is accessed via a rear door or doors. Sometimes shortened to just wagon.

Surrey top
Similar to the Porsche Targa top, the surrey top was developed by Triumph in 1962 for the TR4.

T-top
A derivative of the Targa top, called a T-bar roof, this fixed-roof design has two removable panels and retains a central narrow roof section along the front to back axis of the car (e.g. Toyota MR2 Mark I.)

Targa top
A semi-convertible style used on some sports cars, featuring a fully removable hard top roof panel which leaves the A and B pillars in place on the car body. (e.g. Fiat X1/9). Strictly, the term originated from and is trademarked by Porsche for a derivate of its 911 series, the Porsche 911 Targa, itself named after the famous Targa Florio rally. A related styling motif is the Targa band, sometimes called a wrapover band which is a single piece of chrome or other trim extending over the roof of the vehicle and down the sides to the bottom of the windows. It was probably named because the original Porsche Targa had such a band behind its removable roof panel in the late 60s.

Ute
Australian English term for the Coupe Utility body style (see above). Sometimes used informally to refer to any utility vehicle, particularly light trucks such as a pickup truck. In American English, sport-ute is sometimes used[who?] to refer to an SUV.

A Dodge Sprinter, one particular model of van.
In North America "van" refers to a truck-based commercial vehicle of the wagon style, whether used for passenger or commercial use. Usually a van has no windows at the side rear (panel van), although for passenger use, side windows are included. In other parts of the world, 'van' denotes a passenger-based wagon with no rear side windows.

Wagon delivery
North American term (mainly U.S. and Canada). Similar to a sedan delivery, with four doors. Sometimes shortened to delivery; used alone, "delivery" is presumed to be a sedan delivery.

AUTOMOTOVE DESIGN

Automotive design


Designers at work in 1961. Standing by the scale model's left front fender is Richard Teague, a famous automobile designer at American Motors Corporation (AMC).Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, and vans. The functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included in automotive engineers. Automotive design in this context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle, though it is also involved in the creation of the product concept. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background and a degree in industrial design or transportation design

Design elements

The task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects: Exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of automotive design; this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the isolated outer shape of automobile parts, but concentrates on the combination of form and function, starting from the vehicle package.

The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well. In particular, vehicular electronic components and parts will give more challenges to automotive designers who are required to update on the latest information and knowledge associated with emerging vehicular gadgetry, particularly dashtop mobile devices, like GPS navigation, satellite radio, HD radio, mobile TV, MP3 players, video playback and smartphone interfaces. Though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, but some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models.


Exterior design (styling)

The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, and surfaces of the vehicle. Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively more detailed drawings are executed and approved. Clay (industrial plasticine) and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are then used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design (body in white). With 3 and 5 axis CNC Milling Machines, the clay model is first designed in a computer program and then "carved" using the machine and large amounts of clay. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on powerwalls the clay model is still the most important tool to evaluate the design of a car and therefore used throughout the industry.


Interior design (styling)

The stylist responsible for the design of the vehicle interior develops the proportions, shape, placement, and surfaces for the instrument panel, seats, door trim panels, headliner, pillar trims, etc. Here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design (sketch, digital model and clay model).


Color and trim design

The color and trim (or color and materials) designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, and so on. Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers.

Designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as: industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, and architecture. Specific research is done into global trends to design for projects two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from this research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts which are then further refined and tested on the vehicle models.


Graphic design

The design team also develop graphics for items such as: badges, decals, dials, switches, kick or tread strips, liveries, flames, racing stripes, etc.

Toyota A transmission


Toyota Motor Corporation's A family is a family of automatic FWD/RWD/4WD transmissions built by Aisin-Warner. They share much in common with Volvo's AW7* and Aisin-Warner's 03-71* transmissions, which are found in Suzukis, Mitsubishis, and other Asian vehicles. A = Aisin Automatic Second last digit denotes number of gears Last digit is the Toyota series number -E=Electronic control -F=Four wheel drive -H=AWD Transverse mount engine -L=Lock-up torque converter
A10
Toyoglide two speed automatic, largely based on GM's Powerglide.


A20
Two speed automatic.


A30
Toyoglide three speed automatic

Applications:

1970-1973 Corona
Crown
Mark II

A40
Aisin-Warner three speed automatic

Applications:

1973(spring)-1980 Corona

A40D
Four speed automatic

Applications:

1977-1980 Celica Supra
1983-1986 Celica Supra (Australia)
1981 Corona
1981 Toyota Cressida
A41

A42L
Four speed automatic with lockup torque converter


A43D
This transmission model is not electronically controlled. It is instead controlled by throttle position and also by a governor.

Applications:

1981 Toyota Celica Supra
1982-1985 Toyota Celica XX 2000G/S turbo
1982-1985 Volvo 240 2.1L Turbo I4 (AW71)
1985-1990 Volvo 740 2.3L Turbo I4 (AW71)
1985-1990 Volvo 760 2.3L Turbo I4 (AW71)
1985-1990 Volvo 760 2.8L V6 (AW71)
1987-1989 Volvo 780 2.8L V6 (AW71)
1985-95 4x2 Toyota Pickup with 2.4L I4
Gear ratios: 1st 2.452 2nd 1.452 3rd 1.000 4th 0.688 Reverse: 2.212


A43DL
Four speed automatic with lockup torque converter

Applications:

1983-1985 Toyota Cressida
1982-1985 Landcruiser
1982 Celica Supra
1990-1992 Volvo 740 2.3L Turbo I4 (AW71L)
1991-1997 Volvo 940 2.3L Turbo I4 (AW71L)

A43DE
Four speed automatic with lockup torque converter and electronic controls

Applications:

1982-1987 Toyota Cressida
1983-1986 Celica Supra
1992-up Suzuki Sidekick (4L30E)
1992-1998 Volvo 960/S90 (AW 30-43LE)

A44D
Applications:

1989-1991 4-Runner

A44DL
Four speed automatic with lockup torque converter

Applications

1982-1991 Toyota Van

A45DL
Applications

1982-1990 Toyota Van

A55
Three speed automatic

Applications:

1979-1986 Tercel

A1xx
FF Transaxle


A130
A131L
3 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Application:

1984-2002 Toyota Corolla (3 spd.) (includes FX)
1985–1988 Chevrolet Nova
1990-1992 geo prizm

A132L
3 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Application:

1988-1999 Tercel (3 spd.)
1988-1992 Corolla European, Asian, Latin Markets (3 spd. auto)

A140E
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Applications:

1983-2001 Camry (4 cyl.)
1994-1999 Celica GT
1999-2001 Solara (4 cyl.)
Gear ratios: 1st - 2.810:1 2nd - 1.549:1 3rd - 1.000:1 4th - 0.706:1 Rev - 2.296:1

A2xx
FF Transaxle


A240L
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Application:

1985-1992 Corolla (4 spd.) (includes FX) (jj)

A240E
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

1984-1989 MR2 na
1988– Chevrolet Nova

A241E
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Applications:

1990-2005 Celica GTS
1988-1989 MR2 S/C
1990-1999 MR2 2.2l
1996-1997 RAV 4

A241H
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle(AWD)

Application:

1990-1992 Corolla (AWD)

A241L
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Application:

1990-1991 Celica GT

A242L
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Application:

1995-1999 Tercel

A243L
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Application:

1990-1993 Celica ST

A242E
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Application

EP91 Glanza (Starlet)

A244E
4 Speed Automatic Transaxle

Application:

1992-1999 Paseo

A245E
Applications:* 1993-2007 Corolla

Gear ratios: 1st - 3.643:1 2nd - 2.008:1 3rd - 1.296:1 4th - 0.892:1 Rev - 2.977:1 Drive axle ratio (for 93-96 Corolla): 2.821 Drive axle ratio (for 97-02 Corolla): 2.655 Drive axle ratio (for 03-07 Corolla): 2.962

Number of disc B3 is changed from 6 to 5 in 2005


A246E
Application:

1994-1999 Celica ST
2003-2007 Matrix (with VVT-i Engine)
Gear ratios(for Maxtrix): 1st - 4.005:1 2nd - 2.208:1 3rd - 1.425:1 4th - 0.982:1 Rev - 3.272:1 Drive axle ratio : 2.962


A3xx
FR Transmission


A340H
4 Speed Automatic Transmission (4x4)

Applications:

1984-1995 4x4 Trucks w/v-6
1990-1995 4-Runner (4x4)
(Gear ratios 1st-2.80, 2nd-1.53, 3rd-1.00, 4th-0.71, Rev.-2.39)


A340E (30-40LE)
Applications:

1987-1992 Cressida (30-40LE)
1986-1998 Toyota Supra non-turbo
1987-1992 Toyota Supra turbo+
1995-1998 Pickup 2.4L I4, 3.0L V6, 3.4L V6 (Tacoma)
1993-1995 T100 3.0L V6
1993-1997 Previa 2.4L w/supercharger
1993-1995 Lexus GS300 3.0L I6
1991-1997 Aristo 3.0L I6 Turbo
1992-2000 Lexus SC300 3.0L I6
1992-1997 Lexus SC400 4.0L V8
1995-1997 Lexus LS400 4.0L V8
1989-2002 4-Runner
2001-2004 Sequoia
2000-2004 Tundra
2005-2007 TOYOTA COMMUTER 2.5L DIESEL
Ratios 1st:2.804 , 2nd:1.531 , 3rd:1 , 4th:0.705


A340F
Applications:

1995-2003 4-Runner (4x4)
2001-2003 Sequoia (4x4)
1985-1988 4-cyl Pickup (4x4)

A341E
Applications:

1993-1998 Toyota Supra turbo
1991-1997 Toyota Soarer 4.0L V8
1990-1994 Lexus LS400 4.0L V8
1992-1998 Volvo 2.9L I6 (AW30-40LE)

A343F
Application:

1993-1994 Land Cruiser Prado (3.0l)
1995-2001 Land Cruiser

A350E
5 Speed Automatic.

Application:

1996-1997 Lexus GS300 3.0L L6
NOTE: Replaced by A650E for 1998 model year.

A4xx
FR Transmission


A440F
Application:

1988-1992 Land Cruiser

A442F
Application:

1993-1995 Land Cruiser
A5xx
FF Transaxle

A540E
Applications:

1988-1993 Camry (V6)
1998-2000 Sienna
1996 Camry prominent

A540H
Applications:

1989-1991 Camry (V6 AWD)
1996-1999 RAV 4 (4x4)
Gear ratios: 1st - 2.810:1 2nd - 1.549:1 3rd - 1.000:1 4th - 0.734:1 Rev - 2.296:1

(This particular version has a weak reverse - prone to noise and failure - failure included problems with 1st brake)


A541E
Applications:

1994-2001 Camry (V6)
1995-2003 Avalon
2001-2003 Sienna
1999-2003 Solara (V6)
gear ratios 1st 2.81,2nd 1.549,3rd 1.00,4th 0.735 rev 2.296 final drive 3.40 (avalon 2004)


A6xx
FR Transmission


A650E
5 Speed Automatic Transmission

Applications:

1998-2005 Lexus GS300 (2nd Generation)
1998-2000 Lexus GS400
1998-2000 Lexus LS400
2001-2005 Lexus GS430
2001-2005 Lexus IS300 (1st Generation)
2001-2003 Lexus LS430
2001-2005 Lexus SC430
Gear Ratios: 1st 3.357 2nd 2.180 3rd 1.424 4th 1.000 5th 0.753 Rev 3.266


A7xx
FR Transmission


A750E
5 Speed Automatic Transmission

Applications:

2003 4-Runner
2005-2007 Tacoma (V6)

A750F
5 Speed Automatic Transmission(4x4)

Applications:

2003 4-Runner (4x4)
2005-2007 Tacoma (V6 4x4)
2003-2007 GX470 (4x4)
2003-2007 LX470 (4x4)
2005- Land Cruiser Prado 3.0 D4D (4x4) European version

A760E
6 Speed Automatic Transmission

Applications:

2007 GS350

A760H
6 Speed Automatic Transmission

Applications:

2006 GS300 (AWD)
2007 GS350 (AWD)
2006-2007 IS250 (AWD)

A761E
6 Speed Automatic Transmission

Applications:

2006-2007 IS350
2004-2006 LS430
2006-2007 GS430
2006-2007 SC430
Gear Ratios: 1st 3.296 2nd 1.958 3rd 1.348 4th 1.000 5th 0.725 6th 0.582 Rev 2.951


A8xx
FR Transmission


A860E
6 Speed Automatic Transmission

Applications:

DYNA CARGO(JAPAN DOMESTIC)

A9xx
FR Transmission


A960E
6 Speed Automatic Transmission

Applications:

2006 GS300
2006-2007 IS250

AAxx
FR Transmission


AA80E
8 Speed Automatic Transmission

Applications:

2007 LS460
2008 GS460
2009 IS-F
Gear ratios: 1st - 4.596:1 2nd - 2.724:1 3rd - 1.864:1 4th - 1.464:1 5th - 1.231:1 6th - 1.000:1 7th - 0.824:1 8th - 0.685:1 Rev - 2.176:

car models

A car model is a particular brand of vehicle sold under a marque. From an engineering point of view, a particular car model is usually defined and/or constrained by the use of a particular car chassis/bodywork combination or the same monocoque.

This engineering frame may have derivatives, giving rise to more than one body style for a particular car model. For example, the same car model can be offered as a four-door sedan, a two-door coupe, a station wagon, or even as a folding-roof convertible, all derived from the same engineering body frame. An example of this is the BMW 3-series.

Also, the same car model can be offered with different mechanical internals, such as a choice of several engine sizes, automatic or manual transmissions, different suspension, braking or steering systems, etc., all of these options considered fairly interchangeable on that specific body frame. It is common for any specific car model to carry additional badges or letterings to announce the mechanical option(s) incorporated on it.

However, when the same engineering body frame is sold under a different marque or by a partner automaker, it usually becomes, from a commercial point of view, a different car model.

Sometimes the marketing department may give each body style variant its own trade name, creating as many car models as body variants, even though they may share a large parts commonality and the engineering department may continue to consider them all part of the same project. An example of this is the Volkswagen Gol / Voyage / Parati / Saveiro. Conversely, the marketing department may advertise a car model as a convenient derivative of some popular car, when in fact they may be completely different engineering projects with almost no parts commonality.

The same car model may be sold by the automaker in different countries under different names. An example of this is the Mitsubishi Pajero / Montero.

In any given market, the same car model may be available in multiple model ranges or trim levels (having the same body style, but different equipment packages.) It is common for any specific car model to carry additional badges or letterings to announce its trim level. For example, the Renault Scénic includes entry-level trim (badged Renault Scénic Authentique), the next model up (additional badge: Expression), mid-range trim (Dynamique) and luxury trim (Privilège). Another example will be Toyota Camry's trim levels: CE (Classic Edition), LE (Luxury Edition), SE (Sport/Special Edition), XLE (Extra Luxury Edition), and plus limited and anniversary editions.

A particular trim package may define special edition and limited edition models which have limited production, special badges, unique color schemes, special equipment packages, designer brand names, and sometimes called collector's editions because of the rarity and high resale value. For example, the Ford F Series has an extensive line of special and limited edition models: the F150 has the Lariat, 4x4 Off-Road, King Ranch, STX, Eddie Bauer, Harley Davidson, SVT, Lighting, Chip Foose, NASCAR, Anniversary, Sport, Chrome, Texas, Platinum, Hurricane, Heritage, Jack Roush, Limited, and many other editions.

Offering an array of body styles, mechanical specifications and trim levels allow manufacturers to target the same car model to different market niches. For example, the cheap, basic-trim-level, three-door variant of some popular car may be right for the student on a budget, while the station wagon with comfort package may suit the needs of an elder lady, and the very expensive, high-performance, semi-racing variant may catch the eye of the sportier-minded executive with a fat wallet, all of the three variants having arisen from the same project and carrying the same commercial name. An example of this is the Ford Focus.

A car model may be further subdivided into model years, all cars from a particular model year sharing approximatelly the same characteristics (given the same trim level, body style, engine option, etc.) but sometimes with slight differences from others of a different model year. In this context, a facelift may be used to slighly update the looks of an aging car model without a major engineering revision, giving way to a so-called "second series" of that particular model, and sometimes becoming the opportunity for a marketing re-launch of the same car.

Many times a manufacturer decides to completely redesign the car, but with the aim of offering the new model to the same specific public or in the same market niche, keeping it similarly priced and marketed against its usual competitors from other manufacturers. The car is usually considered a different model by the engineering department, carrying a different model designator, but, for marketing reasons, it is offered to the consumers with the same old, traditional, familiar name. An example of this is the Toyota Corolla.

Total production run for a given car is usually calculated regarding the engineering project name or designator. The marketing department may advertise figures for a continuous-production tradename instead, divided in so-called "generations". However, for government or sport regulatory purposes, each body-style/mechanical-configuration combination may be counted as a different model